krippendorff_alpha: Krippendorff's $\alpha$ Inter-Rater Agreement

Description

Computes Krippendorff's (1980, 2004, 2011) $\alpha$, the most general chance-corrected inter-rater agreement coefficient. Unlike cohen_kappa (two raters, nominal data) or fleiss_kappa (multiple raters, nominal data), Krippendorff's $\alpha$ supports any number of raters, missing values, and any of four levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) via a user-specified distance metric.

Usage

krippendorff_alpha(
  ratings,
  level = c("nominal", "ordinal", "interval", "ratio"),
  conf_level = 0.95,
  boot = FALSE,
  B = 1000L,
  seed = NULL
)

Value

A data.frame with rows for the point estimate

$\hat\alpha$, the observed disagreement $D_o$, the expected disagreement $D_e$, the number of pairable values, and, when a bootstrap was run, the lower and upper bootstrap CI limits and B_used, the number of resamples that returned a finite value and so entered the interval.

Arguments

ratings: A units $\times$ raters matrix (or data.frame). Rows = units of analysis; columns = raters. NA entries are allowed.
level: One of "nominal" (default), "ordinal", "interval", or "ratio"; controls the distance metric used to compute disagreement.
conf_level: Confidence level for the bootstrap CI. Default 0.95.
boot: Logical. If TRUE, returns a bootstrap percentile CI. Set to FALSE to return only the point estimate (much faster).
B: Number of bootstrap resamples when boot = TRUE. Default 1000L.
seed: Optional integer seed for reproducibility of the bootstrap. Default NULL, which leaves the user's current RNG state intact; supply an integer for reproducibility.

Author

Ken Kelley [email protected]

Details

Coefficient. Krippendorff's $\alpha$ is $$\alpha \;=\; 1 - \frac{D_o}{D_e},$$ where $D_o$ is the observed disagreement (average squared distance over all within-unit pairs of ratings, scaled by the number of pairable values), and $D_e$ is the expected disagreement (average squared distance over all between-unit pairs). The metric used in the squared distance depends on level:

nominal: $d(a, b) = \mathrm{I}(a \ne b)$
ordinal: distance based on cumulative rank counts
interval: $d(a, b) = (a - b)^2$
ratio: $d(a, b) = ((a - b) / (a + b))^2$

CI. The CI is by case-resampling bootstrap over units (rows): the rows of ratings are resampled with replacement B times and $\alpha$ is recomputed on each resample, so units are the sampling unit and the rater panel is treated as fixed. Only the percentile interval is offered: the limits are the empirical quantiles of the bootstrap estimates (Efron & Tibshirani, 1993); there is no bias-corrected and accelerated (BCa) variant. Resamples on which the coefficient cannot be computed (for example, a resample without enough pairable values) are dropped; the interval is computed from the ones that return a finite value, and how many did is reported as the B_used row of the result. No closed-form sampling variance is in general use for Krippendorff's alpha across its measurement levels and missing data patterns, so the bootstrap is the interval Krippendorff recommends (Krippendorff, 2011; Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007). B = 1000L typically gives a stable CI to two decimal places. The bootstrap is opt-in (boot = FALSE by default, which returns the point estimate alone and is much faster); ask for it whenever the coefficient is being reported rather than explored, since a point estimate on its own says nothing about how precisely $\alpha$ is determined. Bootstrap results vary from run to run; supply seed for reproducibility.

Interpretation. $\alpha$ ranges from $-D_e / D_o$ (perfect disagreement) through $0$ (chance level) to $1$ (perfect agreement). Report the coefficient with its confidence interval and judge it against the reliability the application requires; Krippendorff (2004) discusses how that judgment depends on the cost of acting on unreliable data.

References

Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. J. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap. New York, NY: Chapman & Hall/CRC.

Hayes, A. F., & Krippendorff, K. (2007). Answering the call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication Methods and Measures, 1(1), 77--89. tools:::Rd_expr_doi("10.1080/19312450709336664")

Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage.

Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Sage.

Krippendorff, K. (2011). Computing Krippendorff's alpha-reliability. Departmental Papers (ASC), Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania.

Examples

Run this code

# 1. Nominal ratings, 4 raters, 12 units (from Krippendorff 2011 Tab. 1):
ratings <- matrix(c(
  1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1, 4, 1, 2, NA, NA, NA,
  1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 4, 1, 2, 5,  NA, 3,
  NA, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 2, 2, 5,  1,  NA,
  1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 4, 4, 1, 2, 5,  1,  NA
), nrow = 12, ncol = 4)
krippendorff_alpha(ratings, level = "nominal")

# 2. Interval ratings:
set.seed(113)
r1 <- rnorm(30, 0, 1)
r2 <- r1 + rnorm(30, 0, 0.3)
krippendorff_alpha(cbind(r1, r2), level = "interval")

# The percentile bootstrap interval for the same ratings, which
# recomputes alpha on each of B resamples of the units; the table
# gains lower_limit, upper_limit, and B_used rows. B = 200 keeps the
# example quick; a reported interval deserves the default B = 1000.
krippendorff_alpha(cbind(r1, r2), level = "interval",
                   boot = TRUE, B = 200L, seed = 113)

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krippendorff_alpha: Krippendorff's \(\alpha\) Inter-Rater Agreement