pre: an R package for deriving prediction rule ensembles
pre is an R package for deriving prediction rule ensembles for binary, multinomial, (multivariate) continuous, count and survival responses. Input variables may be numeric, ordinal and categorical. An extensive description of the implementation and functionality is provided in Fokkema (2017). The package largely implements the algorithm for deriving prediction rule ensembles as described in Friedman & Popescu (2008), with several adjustments:
- The package is completely R based, allowing users better access to the results and more control over the parameters used for generating the prediction rule ensemble.
- The unbiased tree induction algorithms of Hothorn, Hornik, & Zeileis (2006) is used for deriving prediction rules, by default. Alternatively, the (g)lmtree algorithm of Zeileis, Hothorn, & Hornik (2008) can be employed, or the classification and regression tree (CART) algorithm of Breiman, Friedman, Olshen, & Stone (1984).
- The package supports a wider range of response variable types.
- The initial ensembles may be generated as in bagging, boosting and/or random forests.
- Hinge functions of predictor variables may be included as
baselearners, as in the multivariate adaptive regression splines
method of Friedman (1991), using function
gpe()
.
Note that pre is under development, and much work still needs to be
done. Below, a short introductory example is provided. Fokkema (2017)
provides an extensive description of the fitting procedures implemented
in function pre()
and example analyses with more extensive
explanations.
Example: Predicting ozone levels
To get a first impression of how function pre()
works, we will fit a
prediction rule ensemble to predict Ozone levels using the airquality
dataset. We fit a prediction rule ensemble using function pre()
:
library("pre")
airq <- airquality[complete.cases(airquality), ]
set.seed(42)
airq.ens <- pre(Ozone ~ ., data = airq)
Note that the random seed was set first, to allow for later replication of the results, as the fitting procedure depends on random sampling of training observations.
We can print the resulting ensemble (alternatively, we could use the
print
method):
airq.ens
#>
#> Final ensemble with cv error within 1se of minimum:
#> lambda = 3.543968
#> number of terms = 12
#> mean cv error (se) = 352.3834 (99.13981)
#>
#> cv error type : Mean-Squared Error
#>
#> rule coefficient description
#> (Intercept) 68.48270406 1
#> rule191 -10.97368179 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 87
#> rule173 -10.90385520 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 82
#> rule42 -8.79715538 Wind > 6.3 & Temp <= 84
#> rule204 7.16114780 Wind <= 10.3 & Solar.R > 148
#> rule10 -4.68646144 Temp <= 84 & Temp <= 77
#> rule192 -3.34460037 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 87 & Day <= 23
#> rule51 -2.27864287 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 84
#> rule93 2.18465676 Temp > 77 & Wind <= 8.6
#> rule74 -1.36479546 Wind > 6.9 & Temp <= 84
#> rule28 -1.15326093 Temp <= 84 & Wind > 7.4
#> rule25 -0.70818399 Wind > 6.3 & Temp <= 82
#> rule166 -0.04751152 Wind > 6.9 & Temp <= 82
The cross-validated error printed here is calculated using the same data
as was used for generating the rules and therefore may provide an overly
optimistic estimate of future prediction error. To obtain a more
realistic prediction error estimate, we will use function cvpre()
later on.
The table represents the rules and linear terms selected for the final
ensemble, with the estimated coefficients. For rules, the description
column provides the conditions. If all conditions of a rule apply to an
observation, the predicted value of the response increases by the
estimated coefficient, which is printed in the coefficient
column. If
linear terms were selected for the final ensemble (which is not the case
here), the winsorizing points used to reduce the influence of outliers
on the estimated coefficient would be printed in the description
column. For linear terms, the estimated coefficient in coefficient
reflects the increase in the predicted value of the response, for a unit
increase in the predictor variable.
If we want to plot the rules in the ensemble as simple decision trees,
we can use the plot
method. Here, we request the nine most important
baselearners are requested here through specification of the nterms
argument. Through the cex
argument, we specify the size of the node
and path labels:
plot(airq.ens, nterms = 9, cex = .5)
We can obtain the estimated coefficients for each of the baselearners
using the coef
method (only the first ten are printed here):
coefs <- coef(airq.ens)
coefs[1:10,]
#> rule coefficient description
#> 201 (Intercept) 68.482704 1
#> 167 rule191 -10.973682 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 87
#> 150 rule173 -10.903855 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 82
#> 39 rule42 -8.797155 Wind > 6.3 & Temp <= 84
#> 179 rule204 7.161148 Wind <= 10.3 & Solar.R > 148
#> 10 rule10 -4.686461 Temp <= 84 & Temp <= 77
#> 168 rule192 -3.344600 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 87 & Day <= 23
#> 48 rule51 -2.278643 Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 84
#> 84 rule93 2.184657 Temp > 77 & Wind <= 8.6
#> 68 rule74 -1.364795 Wind > 6.9 & Temp <= 84
We can generate predictions for new observations using the predict
method:
predict(airq.ens, newdata = airq[1:4, ])
#> 1 2 3 4
#> 32.53896 24.22456 24.22456 24.22456
We can assess the expected prediction error of the prediction rule
ensemble through cross validation (10-fold, by default) using the
cvpre()
function:
set.seed(43)
airq.cv <- cvpre(airq.ens)
#> $MSE
#> MSE se
#> 369.2010 88.7574
#>
#> $MAE
#> MAE se
#> 13.64524 1.28985
The results provide the mean squared error (MSE) and mean absolute error
(MAE) with their respective standard errors. The cross-validated
predictions, which can be used to compute alternative estimates of
predictive accuracy, are saved in airq.cv$cvpreds
. The folds to which
observations were assigned are saved in airq.cv$fold_indicators
.
Tools for interpretation
Package pre provides several additional tools for interpretation of the final ensemble. These may be especially helpful for complex ensembles containing many rules and linear terms.
Importances
We can assess the relative importance of input variables as well as
baselearners using the importance()
function:
imps <- importance(airq.ens, round = 4)
As we already observed in the printed ensemble, the plotted variable
importances indicate that Temperature and Wind are most strongly
associated with Ozone levels. Solar.R and Day are also associated with
Ozone levels, but much less strongly. Variable Month is not plotted,
which means it obtained an importance of zero, indicating that it is not
associated with Ozone levels. We already observed this in the printed
ensemble: Month was not selected as a linear term and did not appear in
any of the selected rules. The variable and baselearner importances are
saved in imps$varimps
and imps$baseimps
, respectively.
Explaining individual predictions
We can obtain explanations of the predictions for individual
observations using function explain()
:
par(mfrow = c(1, 2))
expl <- explain(airq.ens, newdata = airq[1:2, ], cex = .8)
The values of the rules and linear terms for each observation are saved
in expl$predictors
, their contributions in expl$contribution
and the
predicted values in expl$predicted.value
.
We can assess correlations between the baselearners appearing in the
ensemble using the corplot()
function:
corplot(airq.ens)
Partial dependence plots
We can obtain partial dependence plots to assess the effect of single
predictor variables on the outcome using the singleplot()
function:
singleplot(airq.ens, varname = "Temp")
We can obtain partial dependence plots to assess the effects of pairs of
predictor variables on the outcome using the pairplot()
function:
pairplot(airq.ens, varnames = c("Temp", "Wind"))
Note that creating partial dependence plots is computationally intensive
and computation time will increase fast with increasing numbers of
observations and numbers of variables. R
package plotmo
created by
Stephen Milborrow (2018) provides more efficient functions for plotting
partial dependence, which also support pre
models.
If the final ensemble does not contain a lot of terms, inspecting
individual rules and linear terms through the print
method may be
(much) more informative than partial dependence plots. One of the main
advantages of prediction rule ensembles is their interpretability: the
predictive model contains only simple functions of the predictor
variables (rules and linear terms), which are easy to grasp. Partial
dependence plots are often much more useful for interpretation of
complex models, like random forests for example.
Assessing presence of interactions
We can assess the presence of interactions between the input variables
using the interact()
and bsnullinteract()
funtions. Function
bsnullinteract()
computes null-interaction models (10, by default)
based on bootstrap-sampled and permuted datasets. Function interact()
computes interaction test statistics for each predictor variables
appearing in the specified ensemble. If null-interaction models are
provided through the nullmods
argument, interaction test statistics
will also be computed for the null-interaction model, providing a
reference null distribution.
Note that computing null interaction models and interaction test statistics is computationally very intensive.
set.seed(44)
nullmods <- bsnullinteract(airq.ens)
int <- interact(airq.ens, nullmods = nullmods)
The plotted variable interaction strengths indicate that Temperature and
Wind may be involved in interactions, as their observed interaction
strengths (darker grey) exceed the upper limit of the 90% confidence
interval (CI) of interaction stengths in the null interaction models
(lighter grey bar represents the median, error bars represent the 90%
CIs). The plot indicates that Solar.R and Day are not involved in any
interactions. Note that computation of null interaction models is
computationally intensive. A more reliable result can be obtained by
computing a larger number of boostrapped null interaction datasets, by
setting the nsamp
argument of function bsnullinteract()
to a larger
value (e.g., 100).
Including hinge functions (multivariate adaptive regression splines)
More complex prediction ensembles can be obtained using the gpe()
function. Abbreviation gpe stands for generalized prediction ensembles,
which can also include hinge functions of the predictor variables as
described in Friedman (1991), in addition to rules and/or linear terms.
Addition of hinge functions may further improve predictive accuracy. See
the following example:
set.seed(42)
airq.gpe <- gpe(Ozone ~ ., data = airquality[complete.cases(airquality),],
base_learners = list(gpe_trees(), gpe_linear(), gpe_earth()))
airq.gpe
#>
#> Final ensemble with cv error within 1se of minimum:
#> lambda = 3.229132
#> number of terms = 11
#> mean cv error (se) = 361.2152 (110.9785)
#>
#> cv error type : Mean-squared Error
#>
#> description coefficient
#> (Intercept) 65.52169487
#> Temp <= 77 -6.20973854
#> Wind <= 10.3 & Solar.R > 148 5.46410965
#> Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 82 -8.06127416
#> Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 84 -7.16921733
#> Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 87 -8.04255470
#> Wind > 5.7 & Temp <= 87 & Day <= 23 -3.40525575
#> Wind > 6.3 & Temp <= 82 -2.71925536
#> Wind > 6.3 & Temp <= 84 -5.99085126
#> Wind > 6.9 & Temp <= 82 -0.04406376
#> Wind > 6.9 & Temp <= 84 -0.55827336
#> eTerm(Solar.R * h(9.7 - Wind), scale = 410) 9.91783318
#>
#> 'h' in the 'eTerm' indicates the hinge function
References
Breiman, L., Friedman, J., Olshen, R., & Stone, C. (1984). Classification and regression trees. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman&Hall/CRC.
Fokkema, M. (2017). pre: An R package for fitting prediction rule ensembles. arXiv:1707.07149. Retrieved from https://arxiv.org/abs/1707.07149
Friedman, J. (1991). Multivariate adaptive regression splines. The Annals of Statistics, 19(1), 1–67.
Friedman, J., & Popescu, B. (2008). Predictive learning via rule ensembles. The Annals of Applied Statistics, 2(3), 916–954. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30245114
Hothorn, T., Hornik, K., & Zeileis, A. (2006). Unbiased recursive partitioning: A conditional inference framework. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics, 15(3), 651–674.
Milborrow, S. (2018). plotmo: Plot a model’s residuals, response, and partial dependence plots. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=plotmo
Zeileis, A., Hothorn, T., & Hornik, K. (2008). Model-based recursive partitioning. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics, 17(2), 492–514.